[back] Thimerosal
Selected Studies on the Toxicity of Thimerosal Published in
Peer Reviewed Scientific and Medical Journals
www.altcorp.com/DentalInformation/thimstudys.htm
[2006] Samuel R. Goth
et al. Uncoupling of ATP-Mediated Calcium Signaling and Dysregulated
Interleukin-6 Secretion in Dendritic Cells by Nanomolar Thimerosal
UC Davis Study Links Thimerosal With Immune System
Dysfunction
TABLE OF CONTENTS
A. Toxic Effects of Thimerosal on Vital Mammalian
Enzymes
B. Chromosomal Aberrations Induced by
Thimerosal Exposure
C. Disruption of Calcium Homeostasis by Thimerosal
D. Allergic Responses to Thimerosal in Vaccines
and Opthalmics
E. Thimerosal Exposure from Vaccines
- "Last
summer a goal was set for the removal or significant reduction of thimerosal
as a preservative from all vaccines routinely administered to children in
the first year of life. While the risk of harm from this source was only
theoretical, the decision to set a goal to remove thimerosal was made as a
precautionary measure."
-
Testimony of Roger H. Bernier, Ph.D., M.P.H., Associate Director for
Science, National Immunization Program Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention before the Committee on Government Reform U.S. House of
Representatives, July 18, 2000 (see
CDC Testimony).
-
After reading all of the published studies below on the toxicity of
thimerosal, one has to wonder upon what data the CDC based its
conclusion that thimerosal laden vaccines posed only a theoretical risk
of harm.
-
Note: Virtually of all of these studies were published before July 18,
2000.
A. Toxic
Effects of Thimerosal on Vital Mammalian Enzymes and Enzyme Systems
-
Inhibitory action of thimerosal, a sulfhydryl oxidant, on sodium channels in
rat sensory neurons. Song J, Jang YY, Shin YK, Lee MY, Lee C. Brain Res
(2000). May 2; 864(1):105-13. (10793192)
- Rat
brain (Na+-K+)ATPase: modulation of its oubain-sensitive K+-PNPPase activity
by thimerosal. Lewis and Bowler (1983). Int. J. Biochem. 15:5-7. (6298022)
- Modified
cation activation of the (Na+K+)-ATPase following treatment with thimerosal.
Kaplan and Mone (1985). Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 237:386-395. (2983612)
- The
effects of organic and inorganic mercuric salts on (Na+K+)ATPase in
different cerebral fractions in control and intrauterine growth-retarded
rats: alterations induced by serotonin. Chanez et al., (1989).
Neurotoxicology 10:699-706. (2562765t)
- Kinetics
of merthiolate-induced aggregation of human platelets. Vrzheshch et al.,
(1992). Thromb. Res. 67:505-516. (1448785)
- The
effects of thimerosal on calcium uptake and inositol
1,4,5-triphosphate-induced calcium release in cerebellar microsomes. Sayers
et al., (1993). Biochem. J. 289:883-887. (8435083)
- The
effects of thimerosal and cyclopiazonic acid on the Ca(2+)-pumps from rat
cerebellum microsomes. Michelangeli F, DaSilva A, Sayers L, Brown G. Biochem
Soc Trans (1992) May; 20(2):205S (1327911)
-
Thimerosal interacts with the Ca2+ release channel ryanodine receptor from
skeletal muscle sarcoplasmic reticulum. Abramson et al., (1995). J. Biol.
Chem. 270:29644-29647. (8530347)
- Effect
of thimerosal and other sulfhydryl reagents on calcium permeability in
thymus lymphocytes. Pintado et al., (1995). Biochem. Pharmacol. 49:227-232.
(7840800)
-
Thimerosal induces calcium mobilization, fructose 2,6-bisphosphate synthesis
and cytoplasmic alkalinization in rat thymus lymphocytes. Martin F,
Gualberto A, Sobrino F, Pintado E. Biochim Biophys Acta (1991) Jan 10;
1091(1):110-4. (1995061)
-
Increased expression of procoagulant activity on the surface of human
platelets exposed to heavy metal compounds. Goodwin et al., (1995). Biochem.
J. 308:15-21. (7755558)
- Effects
of thimerosal, an organic sulfhydryl modifying agent, on serotonin transport
activity into rabbit blood platelets. Nishio et al., (1996). Neurochem. Int.
29:391-394. (8939447)
- Effects
of thimerosal on the transient kinetics of inositol
1,4,5-triphosphate-induced Ca2+ release from cerebellar microsomes. Mezna
and Michelangeli (1997). Biochem. J. 325:177-182. (9224644)
- The
effects of thimerosal on the purified InsP3 receptor. Mezna M, Longland CL,
Michelangeli F. Biochem Soc Trans (1998). Aug;26(3):S290. (9766009)
- Effects
of thiol-modifying agents on a K(Ca2+) channel of intermediate conductance
in bovine aortic endothelial cells. Cai and Sauve (1997). J. Membr. Biol.
158:147-158. (9230092)
-
Thimerosal: a versatile sulfhydryl reagent, calcium mobilizer, and cell
function-modulating agent. Elferink (1999). Gen. Pharmacol. 33:1-6. (10428009)
- Cardiac
ryanodine receptor activity is altered by oxidizing reagents in either the
luminal or cytoplasmic solution. Eager and Dulhunty (1999). J. Membr. Biol.
167:205-214. (9929372)
- The
effect of thimerosal on neutrophil migration: a comparison with the effect
on calcium mobilization and CD11b expression. Elferink JG, de Koster BM.
Biochem Pharmacol (1998) Feb 1;55(3):305-12. (9484796)
-
Modulation of type 1, 2 and 3 inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate receptors by
cyclic ADP-ribose and thimerosal. Vanlingen et al., (1999). Cell Calcium
25:107-114. (11274965)
-
Modulation of type 1, 2 and 3 inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors by
cyclic ADP-ribose and thimerosal. Vanlingen S, Sipma H, Missiaen L, De Smedt
H, De Smet P, Casteels R, Parys JB. Cell Calcium (1999) Feb; 25(2):107-14. (10326677)
-
Thimerosal enhances agonist-specific differences between [Ca2+]i
oscillations induced by phenylephrine and ATP in single rat hepatocytes.
Green et al., (1999). Cell Calcium 25:173-178. (10326684)
-
Inhibition of the human erythrocytic glutathione-S-transferase T1 (GST T1)
by thimerosal. Muller M, Westphal G, Vesper A, Bunger J, Hallier E. Int J
Hyg Environ Health (2001) Jul; 203(5-6):479-81 (11556154&)
- The
effects of oxidizing and cysteine-reactive reagents on the inward rectifier
potassium channels Kir2.3 and Kir1.1. Bannister JP, Young BA, Main MJ,
Sivaprasadarao A, Wray D. Pflugers Arch (1999) Nov; 438(6):868-78. (10591077)
B.
Chromosomal Aberrations Induced by Thimerosal Exposure
- Analysis
of nine known or suspected spindle poisons for mitotic chromosome
malsegregation using Saccharomyces cerevisiae D61.M. Albertini S (1990).
Mutagenesis 6:65-70. (2263203)
- Effects
of 10 known or suspected spindle poisons in the in vitro porcine brain
tubulin assembly assay. Brunner et al., (1991). Mutagenesis 6:65-70. (2038274)
- In vitro
studies with nine known or suspected spindle poisons: results in tests for
chromosome malsegregation in Aspergillus nidulans.Crebelli et al., (1991).
Mutagenesis 6:131-136. (2056914)
- The
detection and assessment of the aneugenic potential of environmental
chemicals: the European Community Aneuploidy Project. Parry and Sors.
(1993).Mutat Res 287:3-15. (7683383)
- Effects
of potential anueploidy inducing agents on microtubule assembly in vitro.
Wallin and Hartley-Asp (1993). Mutat. Res. 287:17-22. (7683380)
- An
evaluation of the use of in vitro tubulin polymerization, fungal and wheat
assays to detect the activity of potential chemical aneugens. Parry (1993).
Mutat. Res. 287:23-28. (7683381)
- A
comparison of two in vitro mammalian cell cytogenetic assays for the
detection of mitotic aneuploidy using 10 known or suspected aneugens. Warr
et al., (1993). Mutat. Res. 287:29-46. (7683382)
-
Induction of mitotic aneuploidy using Chinese hamster primary embryonic
cells. Test results of 10 chemicals. Natarajan et al., (1993). Mutat. Res.
287:47-56. (7683384)
-
C-mitosis and numerical chromosome aberration analyses in human lymphocytes:
10 known or suspected spindle poisons. Sbrana et al., (1993). Mutat. Res.
287:57-70. (7683385)
- The
cytochalasin-B micronucleus/kinetochore assay in vitro.: studies with 10
suspected aneugens. Lynch and Parry (1993). Mutat. Res. 287:71-86. (7683386)
- An
overview of the results of testing of known or suspected aneugens using
mammalian cells in vivo. Natarajan (1993).Mutat. Res. 287:113-118. (7683377)
- In vivo
studies on chemically induced anueploidy in mouse somatic and germinal
cells. Leopardi et al., (1993). Mutat. Res. 287:119-130. (7683378)
- Synopsis
of the in vivo results obtained with the 10 known or suspected aneugens
tested in the CEC collaborative study. Adler (1993). Mutat. Res.
287:131-137. (7683379)
-
Micronucleus test and metaphase analyses in mice exposed to known and
suspected spindle poisons. Marrazzini et al., (1994). Mutagenesis 9:505-515.
(7854141)
C. Disruption of
Calcium
Homeostasis by Thimerosal
-
Stimulation by thimerosal of histamine-induced Ca(2+) release in intact HeLa
cells seen with aequorin targeted to the endoplasmic reticulum. Montero M,
Barrero MJ, Torrecilla F, Lobaton CD, Moreno A, Alvarez J. Cell Calcium
(2001) Sep; 30(3):181-90. (11508997)
-
Modulation of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate binding to the various inositol
1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor isoforms by thimerosal and cyclic ADP-ribose.
Vanlingen et al., (2001) Biochemical Pharmacology 61:803-809. (11274965)
-
Thimerosal: a versatile sulfhydryl reagent, calcium mobilizer, and cell
function-modulating agent. Elferink JG (1999). Gen Pharmacol 33:1-6. (10428009)
-
Thimerosal enhances agonist-specific differences between [Ca2+]i
oscillations induced by phenylephrine and ATP in single rat hepatocytes.
Green AK, Cobbold PH, Dixon CJ (1999). Cell Calcium 25:173-8. (10326684)
-
Modulation of type 1, 2 and 3 inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors by
cyclic ADP-ribose and thimerosal. Vanlingen S, Sipma H, Missiaen L, De Smedt
H, De Smet P, Casteels R, Parys JB (1999). Cell Calcium 25:107-14. (10326677)
- Effects
of thimerosal on the transient kinetics of inositol
1,4,5-trisphosphate-induced Ca2+ release from cerebellar microsomes. Mezna
M, Michelangeli F (1997). Biochem J 325:177-82. (9224644)
- Effects
of thimerosal, an organic sulfhydryl modifying agent, on serotonin transport
activity into rabbit blood platelets. Nishio H, Nezasa K, Hirano J, Nakata Y
(1996). Neurochem Int 29:391-6. (8939447)
-
Thimerosal-induced Ca2+ mobilization in isolated guinea pig cochlear outer
hair cells. Chen L, Harada N, Yamashita T (1998). Acta Otolaryngol Suppl
539:28-33. (10095857)
-
Phosphatidylserine synthesis in glioma C6 cells is inhibited by Ca2+
depletion from the endoplasmic reticulum: effects of
2,5-di-tert-butylhydroquinone and thimerosal. Wiktorek M, Sabala P, Czarny
M, Baranska J (1996). Biochem Biophys Res Commun 224:645-50. (8713102)
-
Thimerosal interacts with the Ca2+ release channel ryanodine receptor from
skeletal muscle sarcoplasmic reticulum. Abramson JJ, Zable AC, Favero TG,
Salama G (1995). J Biol Chem 270:29644-7. (8530347)
-
Thimerosal increases the responsiveness of the calcium receptor in human
parathyroid and rMTC6-23 cells. Mihai R, Lai T, Schofield G, Farndon JR
(1999). Cell Calcium 26:95-101. (10598273)
- Effect
of thimerosal and other sulfhydryl reagents on calcium permeability in
thymus lymphocytes. Pintado E, Baquero-Leonis D, Conde M, Sobrino F (1995).
Biochem Pharmacol 49:227-32. (7840800)
- Effect
of thimerosal on cytosolic calcium and phosphatidylserine synthesis in
Jurkat T cells. Pelassy C, Breittmayer JP, Ticchioni M, Aussel C (1994). Int
J Biochem 26:93-6. (8138053)
-
Reversible blockade of the calcium-activated nonselective cation channel in
brown fat cells by the sulfhydryl reagents mercury and thimerosal. Koivisto
A, Siemen D, Nedergaard J (1993). Pflugers Arch 425:549-51. (7510880)
-
Thimerosal induced changes of intracellular calcium in human endothelial
cells. Gericke M, Droogmans G, Nilius B (1993). Cell Calcium 14:201-7. (8500136)
- The
effects of thimerosal on calcium uptake and inositol
1,4,5-trisphosphate-induced calcium release in cerebellar microsomes. Sayers
LG, Brown GR, Michell RH, Michelangeli F (1993). Biochem J 289:883-7 (8435083)
- The
effects of thimerosal and cyclopiazonic acid on the Ca(2+)-pumps from rat
cerebellum microsomes. Michelangeli F, DaSilva A, Sayers L, Brown G (1992).
Biochem Soc Trans 20:205S. (1327911)
- The
thiol reagent, thimerosal, evokes Ca2+ spikes in HeLa cells by sensitizing
the inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor. Bootman MD, Taylor CW, Berridge
MJ (1992). J Biol Chem 267:25113-9. (1334081)
-
Cytosolic Ca2+ spikes evoked by the thiol reagent thimerosal in both intact
and internally perfused single pancreatic acinar cells. Thorn P, Brady P,
Llopis J, Gallacher DV, Petersen OH (1992). Pflugers Arch 422:173-8. (1336850)
- Effect
of the sulfhydryl reagent thimerosal on cytosolic free Ca2+ and membrane
potential of thymocytes. Gukovskaya AS, Trepakova ES, Zinchenko VP, Korystov
YN, Bezuglov VV (1992). Biochim Biophys Acta 1111:65-74. (1390866)
-
Thimerosal blocks stimulated but not basal release of endothelium-derived
relaxing factor (EDRF) in dog isolated coronary artery. Crack P, Cocks T
(1992). Br J Pharmacol 107:566-72. (1384915)
-
Thimerosal induces calcium mobilization, fructose 2,6-bisphosphate synthesis
and cytoplasmic alkalinization in rat thymus lymphocytes. Martin F,
Gualberto A, Sobrino F, Pintado E (1991). Biochim Biophys Acta 1091:110-4.
(1995061)
-
Involvement of calcium in the thimerosal-stimulated formation of leukotriene
by fMLP in human polymorphonuclear leukocytes. Hatzelmann A, Haurand M,
Ullrich V (1990). Biochem Pharmacol 39:559-67. (2154987)
- The
effect of thimerosal on neutrophil migration: a comparison with the effect
on calcium mobilization and CD11b expression. Elferink JG, de Koster BM
(1998). Biochem Pharmacol 55:305-12. (9484796)
-
Enhancement of eicosanoid synthesis in mouse peritoneal macrophages by the
organic mercury compound thimerosal. Kaever V, Goppelt-Strube M, Resch K
(1988). Prostaglandins 35:885-902. (3141973)
- The
sulfhydryl reagent thimerosal elicits human platelet aggregation by
mobilization of intracellular calcium and secondary prostaglandin
endoperoxide formation. Hecker M, Brune B, Decker K, Ullrich V (1989).
Biochem Biophys Res Commun 159:961-8 (2495003)
- Platelet
aggregation by thimerosal: role of ADP and SH groups. Leone G, Boni P,
Vincenti A (1976). Thromb Haemost 35:249-57. (989191)
-
Increased expression of procoagulant activity on the surface of human
platelets exposed to heavy-metal compounds. Goodwin CA, Wheeler-Jones CP,
Namiranian S, Bokkala S, Kakkar VV, Authi KS, Scully MF (1995) Biochem J
308:15-21. (7755558)
-
Thimerosal modulates the agonist-specific cytosolic Ca2+ oscillatory
patterns in single pancreatic acinar cells of mouse. Wu J, Takeo T, Kamimura
N, Wada J, Suga S, Hoshina Y, Wakui M (1996). FEBS Lett 390:149-52. (8706847)
- The
effects of thimerosal on the purified InsP3 receptor. Mezna M, Longland CL,
Michelangeli F (1998). Biochem Soc Trans 26:S290. (9766009)
-
Fertilisation and thimerosal stimulate similar calcium spiking patterns in
mouse oocytes but by separate mechanisms. Cheek et al., (1993). Development
119:179-189. (8275854)
- The
thiol reagent, thimerosal induces intracellular calcium oscillations in
mature human oocytes. Herbert M, Murdoch AP, Gillespie JI (1995). Hum
Reprod 10:2183-6. (8567870)
- Sperm,
inositol trisphosphate, and thimerosal-induced intracellular Ca2+ elevations
in rabbit eggs. Fissore RA, Robl JM (1993). Dev Biol 159:122-30. (8365556)
- The
effects of thimerosal, a sulfhydryl reagent, on phasic myometrial
contractions. Phillippe M (1995). Biochem Biophys Res Commun 211:1-6. (7539999)
- Effects
of protein kinase C activation and inhibition on sperm-, thimerosal-, and
ryanodine-induced calcium responses of human oocytes. Sousa M, Barros A,
Mendoza C, Tesarik J (1996). Mol Hum Reprod 2:699-708. (9239685)
- Complete
activation of porcine oocytes induced by the sulfhydryl reagent, thimerosal.
Machaty Z, Wang WH, Day BN, Prather RS (1997). Biol Reprod 57:1123-7. (9369179)
- Calcium
release and subsequent development induced by modification of sulfhydryl
groups in porcine oocytes. Machaty Z, Wang WH, Day BN, Prather RS (1999).
Biol Reprod 60:1384-91. (10330097)
- Time
course of cortical and zona reactions of pig oocytes upon intracellular
calcium increase induced by thimerosal. Wang WH, Machaty Z, Abeydeera LR,
Prather RS, Day BN (1999). Zygote 7:79-86. (10216920)
-
Intracellular calcium responses in bovine oocytes induced by spermatozoa and
by reagents. Nakada K, Mizuno J (1998). Theriogenology 50:269-82. (10734495)
- Possible
mechanisms regulating ATP- and thimerosal-induced Ca(2+) oscillations in the
HSY salivary duct cell line. Tojyo Y, Tanimura A, Nezu A, Morita T. Biochim
Biophys Acta (2001) May 28; 1539(1-2):114-21. (11389973)
- Thiol-reactive
agents biphasically regulate inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate binding and Ca(2+)
release activities in bovine adrenal cortex microsomes. Poirier SN, Poitras
M, Laflamme K, Guillemette G. Endocrinology (2001) Jun; 142(6):2614-21. (11356712)
- Calcium
transient activity in cultured murine neural crest cells is regulated at the
IP(3) receptor. Carey MB, Matsumoto SG. Brain Res (2000) Apr 17;
862(1-2):201-10. (10799686)
-
Inhibition of Ca2+-activated and voltage-dependent K+ currents by
2-mercaptophenyl-1,4-naphthoquinone in pituitary GH3 cells: contribution to
its antiproliferative effect. Huang MH, Wu SN, Chen CP, Shen AY. Life Sci
(2002) Jan 25; 70(10):1185-203. (11848302)
-
Sulfhydryl oxidation overrides Mg(2+) inhibition of calcium-induced calcium
release in skeletal muscle triads. Donoso P, Aracena P, Hidalgo C. Biophys J
(2000) Jul; 79(1):279-86. (10866954)
D.
Allergic Responses to Thimerosal in Vaccines and Opthalmics
-
Thimerosal in the detection of clinically relevant allergic contact
reactions. Suneja T, Belsito DV. J Am Acad Dermatol (2001) Jul; 45(1):23-7.
(11423830)
-
Thiomersal allergy and vaccination reactions. Cox and Forsyth (1988).
Contact Dermatitis 18:229-233. (3378430)
-
Multicenter survey related to the frequency of positive patch tests with
mercury and thiomersal. Lachapelle et al., (1988). Ann. Dermatol. Venereol.
115:793-796. (3378430)
-
Thimerosal: a hidden allergen in opthalmology. Tosti and Tosti (1988).
Contact Dermatitis 18:268-273. (3416589)
-
Hyposensitizing therapy with standard antigenic extracts: an important
source of thimerosal sensitization. Tosti A, Guerra L, Bardazzi F. Contact
Dermatitis (1989) Mar; 20(3):173-6. (2721183)
-
Thiomersal: a frequent cause of sensitization. Tosti A, Melino M, Bardazzi
F, Bonelli U. G Ital Dermatol Venereol (1987) Oct; 122(10):543-5. (2965103)
- Systemic
reactions due to thiomersal. Tosti A, Melino M, Bardazzi F. Contact
Dermatitis (1986) Sep; 15(3):187-8. (2946540)
- Toxic
effects of opthalmic preservatives on cultured rabbit corneal epithelium.
Simmons et al., (1988). Am. J. Optom. Physiol. Opt. 65:867-873. (3252733)
-
Cytotoxicity and mutagenicity of opthalmic solution preservatives and UVA
radiation in L5178Y cells. Withrow et al., (1989). Photochem. Photobiol.
50:385-389. (2780830)
-
Reactions to thimerosal in hepatitis B vaccines. Rietschel and Adams (1990).
Dermatol. Clin. 8:161-164. (2137393)
-
Prevalence and relevance of allergic reactions in patients patch tested in
North America--1984 to 1985. Storrs FJ, Rosenthal LE, Adams RM, Clendenning
W, Emmett EA, Fisher AA, Larsen WG, Maibach HI, Rietschel RL, Schorr WF, et
al. J Am Acad Dermatol 1989 Jun; 20(6):1038-45. (2754054
- Patch
and prick test study of 593 healthy subjects. Seidenari et al., (1990).
Contact Dermatitis 23:162-167. (2282794)
- Contact
sensitization in children. Manzini BM, Ferdani G, Simonetti V, Donini M,
Seidenari S. Pediatr Dermatol (1998). Jan-Feb;15(1):12-7. (9496796)
- Contact
sensitization to thimerosal in healthy subjects Seidenari S, Manzini BM,
Modenese M, Danese P. G Ital Dermatol Venereol (1989) Jul-Aug;
124(7-8):335-9. (2534118)
- A
probable role for vaccines containing thimerosal in thimerosal
hypersensitivity. Osawa et al., (1991). Contact Dermatitis 24:178-182. (1868700)
-
Cytotoxicity of opthalmic preservatives on human corneal epithelium.
Tripathi et al., (1992). Lens Eye Toxic Res. 9:361-375. (1301792)
-
Ethylmercuric chloride: the responsible agent in thimerosal
hypersensitivity. Pirker et al., (1993). Contact Dermatitis 29:152-154. (8222628)
-
Thimerosal induces toxic reaction in non-sensitized animals. Uchida et al.,
(1994). Int. Arch. Allergy Immunol. 104:296-301. (7518269)
-
Frequency of sensitization to 13 common preservatives in Switzerland. Swiss
Contact Dermititis Research Group. Perrenoud et al., (1994). Contact
Dermatitis 30:276-279. (8088140)
-
Sensitization to thimerosal (Merthiolate) is still present today. van 't
Veen and van Joost (1994). Contact Dermatitis 31:293-298. (7867326)
- Source
and clinical significance of allergy for thiomersal, an organic mercury
compound] van 't Veen AJ, van Joost T. Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd (1996) Feb 10;
140(6):297-300. (8720702)
-
Sensitization to thimerosal and previous vaccination. Schafer et al.,
(1995). Contact Dermatitis 32:114-116. (7758313)
-
Epidemiology of contact allergy in adults. Schafer T, Bohler E, Ruhdorfer S,
Weigl L, Wessner D, Filipiak B, Wichmann HE, Ring J. Allergy (2001) Dec;
56(12):1192-6. (11736749)
-
Hypersensitivity to thimerosal: the sensitizing moiety. Goncalo et al.,
(1996). Contact Dermatitis 34:201-203. (8833465)
- Allergic
contact dermatitis in children. A multicenter study of the Portuguese
Contact Dermatitis Group (GPEDC). Goncalo S, Goncalo M, Azenha A, Barros MA,
Bastos AS, Brandao FM, Faria A, Marques MS, Pecegueiro M, Rodrigues JB, et
al. Contact Dermatitis (1992) Feb; 26(2):112-5. (1633701)
- Contact
allergy in patients with periorbital eczema: an analysis of allergens. Data
recorded by the Information Network of the Departments of Dermatology.
Ockenfels et al., (1997). Dermatology 195:119-124. (9310716)
-
Thimerosal positives: the role of SH groups and divalent ions. Santucci et
al., (1998). Contact Dermatitis 39:123-126. (9771985)
-
Thimerosal positivities: patch testing to methylmercury chloride in subjects
sensitive to ethylmercury chloride. Santucci B, Cannistraci C, Cristaudo A,
Camera E, Picardo M. Contact Dermatitis 1999 Jan;40(1):8-13. (9928798)
-
Thimerosal positivities: the role of organomercury alkyl compounds.
Santucci B, Cannistraci C, Cristaudo A, Camera E, Picardo M. Contact
Dermatitis (1998) Jun; 38(6):325-8. (9687031)
-
Thimerosal positivities. Santucci B, Cannistraci C, Camera E, Cristaudo A,
Picardo M. Contact Dermatitis (1996) Dec; 35(6):366-7. (9118636)
- Contact
dermatitis in children: 6 years experience (1992-1997). Romaguera and
Vilaplana (1998). Contact Dermatitis 39:277-280. (9874017)
-
Sensitization to thimerosal in atopic children. Patrizi et al., (1999).
Contact Dermatitis 40:94-97. (10048654)
-
Reactions to vaccinations against tetanus and tick-borne encephalitis caused
by merthiolate (thiomersal). Lindemayr H, Drobil M, Ebner H. Hautarzt (1984)
Apr; 35(4):192-6. (6724907)
-
Merthiolate hypersensitivity and vaccination. Forstrom L, Hannuksela M,
Kousa M, Lehmuskallio E. Contact Dermatitis (1980) Jun; 6(4):241-5. (6447032)
E. Thimerosal Exposure from
Vaccines
-
Iatrogenic exposure to mercury after hepatitis B vaccination in preterm
infants. Stajich GV, Lopez GP, Harry SW, Sexson WR. J Pediatr (2000) May;
136(5):679-81. (10802503)
- Vaccines
without thiomersal: why so necessary, why so long coming? van't Veen AJ.
Drugs (2001); 61(5):565-72. (11368282)
-
Predicted mercury concentrations in hair from infant immunizations: cause
for concern. Redwood L, Bernard S, Brown D. Neurotoxicology (2001) Oct;
22(5):691-7. (11770890)
- Autism:
a novel form of mercury poisoning. Bernard S, Enayati A, Redwood L, Roger H,
Binstock T. Med Hypotheses (2001) Apr; 56(4):462-71. (11339848)
- The 2002
recommended childhood immunization schedule and progress toward elimination
of thimerosal. Zimmerman RK. Am Fam Physician (2002) Jan 1; 65(1):127-8. (11804439)
- From the
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Impact of the 1999 AAP/USPHS
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Thimerosal induces neuronal cell apoptosis by causing cytochrome c
and apoptosis-inducing factor release from mitochondria
Yel L et al.
Int J Mol Med. 2005 Dec;16(6):971-7.
There is a worldwide increasing concern over the neurological risks of
thimerosal (ethylmercury thiosalicylate) which is an organic mercury compound
that is commonly used as an antimicrobial preservative. In this study, we show
that thimerosal, at nanomolar concentrations, induces neuronal cell death
through the mitochondrial pathway. Thimerosal, in a concentration- and
time-dependent manner, decreased cell viability as assessed by calcein-ethidium
staining and caused apoptosis detected by Hoechst 33258 dye. Thimerosal-induced
apoptosis was associated with depolarization of mitochondrial membrane,
generation of reactive oxygen species, and release of cytochrome c and
apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF) from mitochondria to cytosol. Although
thimerosal did not affect cellular expression of Bax at the protein level, we
observed translocation of Bax from cytosol to mitochondria. Finally, caspase-9
and caspase-3 were activated in the absence of caspase-8 activation. Our data
suggest that thimerosal causes apoptosis in neuroblastoma cells by changing the
mitochondrial microenvironment.
PMID: 16273274
Mitochondrial mediated thimerosal-induced apoptosis in a human
neuroblastoma cell line (SK-N-SH)
Humphrey ML et al.
Neurotoxicology. 2005 Jun;26(3):407-16.
Environmental exposure to mercurials continues to be a public health issue due
to their deleterious effects on immune, renal and neurological function.
Recently the safety of thimerosal, an ethyl mercury-containing preservative used
in vaccines, has been questioned due to exposure of infants during immunization.
Mercurials have been reported to cause apoptosis in cultured neurons; however,
the signaling pathways resulting in cell death have not been well characterized.
Therefore, the objective of this study was to identify the mode of cell death in
an in vitro model of thimerosal-induced neurotoxicity, and more specifically, to
elucidate signaling pathways which might serve as pharmacological targets.
Within 2 h of thimerosal exposure (5 microM) to the human neuroblastoma cell
line, SK-N-SH, morphological changes, including membrane alterations and cell
shrinkage, were observed. Cell viability, assessed by measurement of lactate
dehydrogenase (LDH) activity in the medium, as well as the
3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay, showed
a time- and concentration-dependent decrease in cell survival upon thimerosal
exposure. In cells treated for 24 h with thimerosal, fluorescence microscopy
indicated cells undergoing both apoptosis and oncosis/necrosis. To identify the
apoptotic pathway associated with thimerosal-mediated cell death, we first
evaluated the mitochondrial cascade, as both inorganic and organic mercurials
have been reported to accumulate in the organelle. Cytochrome c was shown to
leak from the mitochondria, followed by caspase 9 cleavage within 8 h of
treatment. In addition, poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) was cleaved to form a
85 kDa fragment following maximal caspase 3 activation at 24 h. Taken together
these findings suggest deleterious effects on the cytoarchitecture by thimerosal
and initiation of mitochondrial-mediated apoptosis.
PMID: 15869795
Biochemical and molecular basis of thimerosal-induced apoptosis in T
cells: a major role of mitochondrial pathway
Makani S et al.
Genes Immun. 2002 Aug;3(5):270-8.
http://www.nature.com/gene/journal/v3/n5/pdf/6363854a.pdf
The major source of thimerosal (ethyl mercury thiosalicylate) exposure is
childhood vaccines. It is believed that the children are exposed to significant
accumulative dosage of thimerosal during the first 2 years of life via
immunization. Because of health-related concerns for exposure to mercury, we
examined the effects of thimerosal on the biochemical and molecular steps of
mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis in Jurkat T cells. Thimerosal and not
thiosalcylic acid (non-mercury component of thimerosal), in a
concentration-dependent manner, induced apoptosis in T cells as determined by
TUNEL and propidium iodide assays, suggesting a role of mercury in T cell
apoptosis. Apoptosis was associated with depolarization of mitochondrial
membrane, release of cytochrome c and apoptosis inducing factor (AIF) from the
mitochondria, and activation of caspase-9 and caspase-3, but not of caspase-8.
In addition, thimerosal in a concentration-dependent manner inhibited the
expression of XIAP, cIAP-1 but did not influence cIAP-2 expression. Furthermore,
thimerosal enhanced intracellular reactive oxygen species and reduced
intracellular glutathione (GSH). Finally, exogenous glutathione protected T
cells from thimerosal-induced apoptosis by upregulation of XIAP and cIAP1 and by
inhibiting activation of both caspase-9 and caspase-3. These data suggest that
thimerosal induces apoptosis in T cells via mitochondrial pathway by inducing
oxidative stress and depletion of GSH.
PMID: 12140745