Experimental results from a new system of electrical power generation in which energy output exceeds energy input are given. An alternative theory shows that basically it is the spatial reality that creates cosmic matter and therefore the energy conservation law primarily is applicable to the universe as a whole. Discrepancies in the energy conservation law will arise in all those phenomena where spatial energy fields in atomic structure are not taken into account.

The law of conservation of energy is today an accepted doctrine that governs all energy-exchange phenomena of nature. The impossibility of perpetual motion follows from this very law.

When a neutron within a nucleus undergoes beta-decay splitting into an electron and a proton, the mass of the neutron exceeds the combined mass of the electron and proton. As per mass-energy equation, E-mc², the mass-deficit should appear in the kinetic energy of the decay products. Accurate measurements, however, showed that the electron and proton carried less kinetic energy. At that stage (1931) when the law of conservation of energy was threatened, the existence of a new particle (neutrino), till then unknown, was postulated to save the law. The particle predicted had to be neutral so that "charge conservation" is also applicable to the process because the decay products, proton and electron from the neutral neutron, carry positive and negative unit charges respectively. The above shows the rigidity with which, presently, the energy conservation law is adhered to even in quantum phenomena.

The results of certain experiments in recent years involving electromagnetic induction effect, described further in this article, are in violation of the conservation law of energy. A deeper analysis of the fundamental state of energy that can create stable matter, and energy-exchange between electron/atom and electromagnetic radiation are carried out through an alternative theory proposed in author's works [1,2] that reveals the reasons for the apparent failure of the conservation law in the above mentioned experiment, and also the major digressions from reality that seem to have been made by the 20th century physics.

Space Power Generation

A rotating system of electromagnet and conductors is shown in Fig.1. The conductor A develops positive voltage with respect to the shaft due to its rotation with the magnetic field B, while the other conductor A1 develops zero voltage due to magnetic field B being in opposite directions in the upper and lower half of the conductor. Though the electromagnet producing the field B along with its iron core and the conductors A and Al form a Co-rotating system, yet voltages are induced in the conductors as discussed elsewhere [3]. The rotation of the machine is achieved with a variable speed dc drive motor (DM) which can be kept at constant speed during the no-load and the load tests of the generator (Space Power Generator, abbreviated as SPG). The test results obtained during the recent tests on the SPG are shown in Table-1. Against an input of 6975 watts dc to DM, the electrical dc output measured through shunt at the terminals of SPG is 7584 watts, despite the fact that 3105 watts of power is consumed towards windage and friction of the DM-SPG set running at 3413 rpm. The energy-balance shows that the output exceeds input by 3690 wafts, which is in violation of the law of conservation of energy in this specific experiment involving electro-magnetic induction effect.

The flow of electrons in the load current from the SPG was explained in an article "Genesis of Free Power Generation" [4] to be not due to the energy from the electromotive force (EMF), because, as argued in that article, the EMF, in an ideal generator with negligible windage and frictional losses, can be generated without energy consumption. Contrary to the modern concept on the flow of electric current, the explanation given was that the electrons from the neutral atoms of the circuit conductor are at tracted by the positively charged atoms at SPG's positive terminal, and this process of attraction of electrons from atom to atom throughout the circuit, and continuous flow of current, does not deplete the electric field strength of the atoms as they change form positive to neutral state and back to positive, thus attracting and transmitting electrons onwards to their adjacent atoms in one direction constantly. The above process of flow of electric current signifies that force between co-linear currents is attractive. Such a conclusion that follows from space vortex theory (abbreviated as SVT) [1,2] is also supported by the experiment of Stefan Marinov [5].

The heat energy (1²R) in the circuit conductor was attributed [4] to the electrons jostling around the atoms, consequent in creased vibration of the atoms, and " changing potentials" of the atoms in their neighbourhood and beyond. It was argued that the atoms do not lose any energy, that is seen as light, from their structure (discussed further). Therefore, the question as to "where from the additional power comes?" needs further exploration.

A deeper analysis [1 ,2] of the structure of electron and atoms shows that the basic state of energy constituting electrons and atoms is an indestructible entity (produced due to dynamics of absolute vacuum, discussed further) that can not be " emitted" by the particles or the fields associated with the particles during their oscillations or acceleration. Just as gravity field of earth can be said to produce energy through a system of bodies under free-fall, and without reduction of earth's gravity field strength, so also the atoms in a conductor during current flow produce heat without loss of energy form their structure. In any case, the source of the additional power is the "circuit conductor" and not the SPG, since after the creation of the EMF at the SPG's terminals, the motive force[4] for the electrons was shown to come from the atoms of the circuit conductor.

In the article "Genesis of Free Power Generation" [4] it had also been stated that by appropriate disposition of conductors with respect to the magnetic field, and close proximity of the circuits that carry outgoing and return currents within the SPG, the effects of Lenz's law (that follows from the energy conservation law) can be overcome to a good extent. As shown in Fig.1, the conductors A and A₁ are located side by side such that the magnetic fields created due to their currents in opposite directions are appreciably cancelled, thus reducing the interaction of these fields with the electromagnet's magnetic field that initially induced the voltages. The reaction of the SPG on DM because of the load current of the SPG is reduced since Lenz's law has been partially overcome, and consequently the output exceeds the input by 3890 watts. It gets evident that the interaction between the magnetic field that induces the voltages in the conductors, and the magnetic fields produced by the load current are the only agencies that determine the reaction of a loaded conventional generator on its prime mover, and there is no other mechanism operating within the generator to ensure the equality of output with input, as required by the energy conservation law.

The new finding of the fact that the output exceeds the input in the above experiment can not be explained by the contemporary physics which, while recognizing matter and its fields as reality, considers space (without fields and matter) as empty extension. ln author's view, a broader concept (discussed below) that reveals the fundamental nature of space, matter, energy, and their inter-relationships, is required to pinpoint the reasons due to which the results of the above experiments become inex plicable by the current physics.

N.B - For complete discussions refer to author's works 'Beyond Matter" [1]

The classical physics proposed that electron is a "spherical ball" of unit charge, and its radius can be expressed as r_e = e²/m_e c², where e² = qe²/⁴ p e ₀ in which q_e is the electron's charge m_e is electron's mass, e₀ is the dielectric constant of the absolute vacuum, and c is the speed of light in absolute vacuum. It has been postulated in author's works [1,2] that electron is a "vortex of vacuum" with absolute "nonmaterial" properties of "mass-lessness", "continuity", 'zeroviscosity", and "fluidity" (Fig.2a) with a central spherical void of fixed radius r_e within which the flow of the absolute vacuum (hereafter, referred as "space") is broken down due to its circulation at speed of light. The expressions for q₀ and m_e derived from the vortex structure of electron are m_e = (4p /3)r_e³c and q_e = (p /4) 4p r_e²c. Also, in the above works[2] it has been shown that e ₀= p /2c. Substituting these values of q_e, m_e and e ₀ (that are expressed in terms of r_e and c) in the expressions of classical electron radius, we have,

 The spherical void (hole) in dynamic space at the centre of electron removes the difficulty [2] of "infinite energy" in the field of electron (considered presently as point charge) since the energy distribution starts from the spherical space-void interface at radius r_e, and not from the void centre; the energy within the void being zero or negative, relatively speaking. The spherical void also reverses the direction of the vectors of the fields associated with the electron [Fig.2b]. The electron (uninteracted with any matter or field) is held stationary due to his own inward radial forces arising out of its dynamically stable structure [1,2,4] of eternally spinning space at the highest possible speed c at void-space interface, making it exhibit the behaviour of a "hard shell" for outside interactions, and spatial reality (velocity field due to space rotation) extending in the entire universe. The motion of electron in space due to its void-vortex structure exhibits inertia, momentum and kinetic energy as derived in "Beyond Matter" [2] the energy of creation is computed [2] as m_e c₂ which conforms to Einstein's mass-energy equation. Also, annihilation of electron and positron [2] is physically possible to be achieved due to reduction of "space spin" and resultant collapse of the central void when the particles due to attraction are superposed on each other. Any displacement given to a single electron (removed from all matter and fields) is opposed by its own inward forces on its spherical interface as stated above.

Modern physics considers emission of energy in the form of light (photons) from an electron in oscillation or acceleration. If an electron is set in oscillations, it eventually comes to rest, and "how else the stoppage of oscillating movements is possible if energy is not emitted from it as photons" is the argument generally given. It was also the prediction of classical electromagnetic theory that an electron orbiting around nucleus will eventually fall on to the nucleus. The spherical void at the centre of electron in SVT, as stated earlier, has negative energy, and hence it can not emit any positive energy (photons) from within. Also, no entity can penetrate the interface spinning at speed of light. Therefore, the electron has structural limitation in absorbing any energy within. For the structure of the electron to remain stable, the energy of the spatial spin has to be constant. The production (not emission) of light is an effect [1,3] produced due to decay of the potential (gravitational and electromagnetic) of the electron under annihilation that initiates at its spherical void and transmits into the whole universe (Fig.3b). There can be no exchange of energy between the electron and the "light effect" produced due to its oscillation or acceleration in the atomic orbit. The stoppage of electron's oscillations, mentioned earlier, is due to the inward nature of fields on electron's spherical interface and not on account of loss of energy by emission of photons as presently believed.

In SVT, the existence of only one fundamental particle, that is, electron, follows from the postulates that the universe is constructed of only one non-material entity (space) with the limiting speed of its flow, c. The positron is shown [1 ,2] to be an oppositely spinning electron, and thus the idea of positive and negative charge is a relative concept. The electrons, through the interactions of velocity fields, repel each other electrically and attract magnetically when in motion. Also, an electron attracts positron electrically and repels magnetically when in motion. With such forces of interaction between these particles, an electron and a positron in dynamic state will magnetically repel without annihilating each other, and, as shown in Fig.4, can assemble into a neutron, which as per SVT, is the core of Hydrogen atom. When the neutron assembled out of 1836 numbers of electrons (918 of them are positrons) is enclosed within a space vortex, its stability increases as ft develops electric charge due to "space spin" around it and becomes a proton. When a proton attracts an electron through the interaction of the velocity fields in their vortices, hydrogen atom is built (Fig. 4). The spacing between the centres of the orbiting electron and the proton is determined by the common velocity-field at the spinning surface of proton. The velocity fields of electron being (relatively) oppositely oriented with the proton's velocity fields, the hydrogen atom behaves neutral to outside interactions.

The atomic structure of hydrogen, described above, shows that the region around the nucleus is the vortex of space with speed of space rotation of (0,12) around the nucleus, and falling inversely as the distance from the centre. The bond between the electron and proton is provided by the common velocity-field between these particles which occurs at the interspacing of 24r_e, and thus the electron will have electrical attraction with the proton and also a fixed orbit₁ with no possibility of its falling on to the nucleus, since, the zero-viscosity space circulating within the vortex, does not reduce its velocity field with time. The size of the atom is determined by the volume of the nucleus which, in this case, is neutron assembled out of 1836 electrons. With this vortex structure, the atom too, like electron, has no possibility of either emitting or absorbing energy except for kinetic energy which is associated [1,2] with it when in motion relative to space.

For the atoms heavier than hydrogen [2], the nuclei contain half electrons and half positrons to account for the nuclear mass of different atoms, the velocity fields of the spatial-spin around the nucleus determines the charge around the nucleus, and the numbers of electrons orbiting around the nucleus are fixed so as to bring overall neutrality of the atoms in normal state.

The creation of the spherical void of electron energises the whole universal space by producing [1,2] gravitational and also electric field (Fig. 3a, Fig.5) in the space of the universe. The angular momentum of electron (Fig.2a) due to spin of its interface and computed as, (4/5) m_e cr_e, with the use of the mass and charge equations derived in SVT is concluded to be the plank's constant in it's basic form, and applicable to the fundamental particle, electron. During the process of annihilation, the angular momentum of electron reduces to zero in time duration r_e/c releasing energy (4/5) m_e cr_e /(r_e/c), that is, (4/5) m_e c², which flows into the void under the process of collapse. Simultaneously, a spherical shell (Fig.3b) of negative energy** [2] is initiated from the interface transmitting out in space at speed c, and seen as a pulse of light. In the above process of annihilation, the frequency of light is identified as the inverses of the duration of the pulse formation, that is, 1/(r_e/c), and the wavelength of light as r_e. It is also shown [2] that the energy released at the interface, given above, is:

The Planck's constant for an atom under oscillation has been derived [2] with the "time rate of change of gravitational potential energy" at the spherical nuclear surface of the atom. It is shown that Planck's constant for atoms is different for each atom, and also different for electron (though with slight variations). Further, it is seen that Planck's constant is directly proportional to the square of the mass, and inversely proportional to the radius of the atom [1], which is against the very basic concept of quantum theory that rests on the premise that Planck's constant is an universal constant. Also, with light effect consisting of successive shells of energy (depleted energy shells, more precisely), such that the frequency of light is determined by the number of shells produced by an oscillating atom per unit time [2.6], Planck's constant has physical significance of energy quantum contained in only one shell as shown below.

If N shells of light (of frequency f) are produced in unit time (say, second) from an oscillating atom, then from Planck's energy equation,

E = hf = h (N/sec)

E/N = h/sec = 6.62 x 10^-27 erg in CGS units, whereas, different from above, modern view is that energy of each photon of light is hf, which, as per SVT is the energy contained in all the shells produced in unit time. Though light is produced in discrete energy quanta contained in each shell, and also transmitted as energy quanta (in the individual shell) as suggested by Einstein, the quanta of energy as concluded above is not "hf' but "h/sec" in CGS units.

In the explanation for photo-electric effect, the kinetic energy of the ejected electrons should be derived from the inherent rotation of the orbital electrons in the atomic vortex, and not from the energy absorption by the photo-electrons from the photons of light as now conventionally believed. The threshold frequency for photo-emission can be determined by the gradient across the wavelength of the "changing gravity potential" [2] which is higher for shorter wavelengths, that is, higher frequency. The highest gradient of the "gravity potential changes" occurs across the shortest wavelength (equal to electron's void radius) of light produced (Fig. 3b) due to electron-positron annihilation. When a shell of light of appropriate potential gradient across the wavelength interacts with atoms, the bond due to common velocity field (Fig. 4) between the orbital electrons and the atom is broken, and the photo-electrons shoot out with the kinetic energy already possessed by these particles due to orbital rotation.

The dual behaviour [2, 6] of light both as wave and particle can be met with the shell-nature of light. Also, in SVT, a sharper distinction between particle and wave is achieved in the sense that the properties of mass and inertia get limited to the electrons and material particles built out of them whereas, fields like gravity, electric, magnetic, and electromagnetic, produced due to creation of matter and its motion in space are concluded to be mass-less and inertia-less wave-like entities.

Fig. 7 shows a free atom A oscillating about its mean position, whereas, atom B is embedded in the surface S of a metal plate. The lines of action of the inward gravity field FA of the atom A, and the inward gravity field F_B of the atom B, are also shown. The atom B is held due to the interatomic forces F of the neighbouring atoms in the plate except on the surface S where F_A interacts with the field F_B of the atom B. The resultant gravity field F_B - F_A acts at atom B on the plate's surface S. With the oscillation of atom A, when it is displaced towards left, a light pulse as described earlier starts from A, and after a time R/c, reaches S decreasing the strength of the field F_A, thereby increasing the magnitude of F_B - F_A, which results in a net force on B arisen because of its own inward gravity field F_B. During the next displacement towards right, through a similar process as described above, the magnitude of F_A increases (as A comes closer to B) which decreases the magnitude F_B - F_A, and leads to the reduction of force on the atom B. The intermittent pressure impulses on atom B, which is held embedded in the surface S by the interatomic forces F, set it under oscillation, creating electromagnetic pulses also from the atom B. It is thus seen that the atom A, without imparting momentum to atom B with direct contact, sets it in oscillation through the light pulses produced due to its mechanical oscillations.

Since in a neutral atom the velocity fields in the vortices of the orbital electrons and the central nucleus cancel each other, the electromagnetic field of the electrons (arising due to their structural vortices) confined within the atom is not the agency to produce light (electromagnetic wave) from an atom under oscillation. As concluded earlier, the changes in the gravity potential of the oscillating neutral atom produce light, and therefore, the phenomenon of light is an effect of Galilean relativity in the sense that during oscillation, to and fro displacement of atom relative to space produces light.

The electron in its structure has symmetrical distribution of velocity field around its void centre as shown in Fig. 2a and Fig. 2b. The velocity field of an electron, when it is in motion relative to space, is converted to magnetic field [1,2]. During the inter action of the electromagnetic field of a moving electron with external fields, that may be electric or magnetic in nature, the symmetrical distribution of the field of electron in its structure change, due to which it moves under the action of the resultant field acting inwards on its interface till normalcy is achieved, that is, till the symmetry of the fields around the void is restored. After stability has reached and the motion of electron has ceased, the field strengths of the external field and also the structural field of electron remain unaltered, thus showing that the electron, as a system of fields, has not lost any energy during above interactions.

The exchange of energy between two material systems can, however, take place due to impact between two electrons in relative motion on account of transfer of additional velocity field (that determines momentum) [2] associated with the linear motion of electron moving at higher velocity to the electron at lower velocity. Here again the velocity field in the vortex structure of electrons remain unchanged since the fields (and matter), due to their construction by non-material space medium with absolute properties. are permanent (indestructible) entities.

During the flow of electric current, the orbital electrons of the atoms of the conductor in electric generators interact with the external magnetic field during the induction of EMF at no-load condition, and create positive and negative polarities due to motion of electrons towards one of the ends of the conductor without expenditure of any energy from the magnetic field system or depletion of the magnetic field strength. The atoms of the circuit conductor changing from neutral to positive in succession and transmitting electrons (current), as explained earlier, do not undergo any reduction of the velocity field in their vortices, and thus keep the structural energy constant. Therefore, to the extent Lenz's law can be overcome by suitable disposition of the conductor and magnetic field system as discussed before, output electrical power greater than the input can be generated. However, when the spatial reality of fields and absence of energy at electron's centre are recognized, the law of conservation of energy becomes applicable only to the universe as a whole, though for the phenomena involving material interactions due to conservation of momentum, the energy conservation law will be valid also in isolated systems.

The electron as point-charge, and the assumption that it "absorbs" energy and also gives off" energy during acceleration are misconceptions that have hindered development of theory on atomic structure in right direction. Further, non-recognition of the spatial field around the atomic nucleus (Fig. 4) due to which orbital electrons keep fixed orbits and rotate at high speed (nearly one tenth of speed of light in case of Hydrogen atom) has complicated explanation for the kinetic energy of the electrons emitted in photoelectric phenomenon and has led to the misunderstanding of the nature of Plank's constant. Einstein believed a single photon's energy to be 'hf' perhaps to account for the kinetic energy of the emitted electrons together with the "work function". It, however, turns out that in GGS unit the energy of a single photon should be, "h/sec', and not "hf" which reduces the photon energy (producing photo-electron) by about 10¹⁴ times. The photon model as a "shell", and spatial energy as velocity field in atomic vortices, provide solution to the above problem as well as dilemma on dual behavior ( wave-particle) of light.

The structures of electron, proton and atoms are "perpetually rotating system" at the very basic level of the universe. The universal space (absolute vacuum) itself is the most fundamental dynamic plenum. Therefore, achieving "perpetual motion" through electromagnetic machines is a total future possibility, since the ratio of energy output/energy input has already exceeded unity.

Tewari, Chapter 7

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