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The Atomic Nucleus

Isotopes

Same number
of protons, but
different
numbers of
neutrons.

Electrical and
chemical
properties are
the same, but
nuclear
properties
are different.

Quarks and the Strong Force

Quarks are responsible for the
nuclear force between nucleons.

The nuclear force is also known
as the strong force.

The strong force is extremely
short-range compared to the
electric force.

Unstable Nuclei

Neutrons 1-4 provide
strong forces of
attraction for the
indicated proton, but
other neutrons are too
far away to help
balance the longer-
range forces of
repulsion provided by
the many protons to
the right of the proton.

The larger the nucleus,
the more unstable it is.

Uranium Decays via Alpha-Particle Emission

The first particle ejected from an unstable nucleus was called an alpha particle
because alpha is the first letter of the Greek alphabet. It's now known to consist of
two protons and two neutrons, which is the same as a helium nucleus.

Balancing Nuclear Disintegration Equations

Total number of nucleons is conserved: 238 =====> 234 + 4

Total charge is conserved: 92 =====> 90 + 2

Reaching Stability Through Gamma Ray Emission

Nuclei with excess
energy emit
gamma-rays, which
are extremely short-
wavelength electro-
magnetic waves, i.e.,
very high energy
photons.

Blocking Radiation

Alpha particles are 8,000 times
as heavy as beta particles.

Paper or clothing will block
alpha particles, while beta
particles require a few sheets
of aluminum foil.

Gamma radiation is extremely
dangerous--a thousand times
more potent than xrays.

Radioactivity in Radium Killed Marie Curie

₈₈Ra^{226
======>}₈₆Rn²²² + ₂He⁴

Marie Curie

Marie Sklodowska Curie
(1867-1934)

Lithograph entitled "Radium"
appeared in the December 22,
1904 issue of Vanity Fair.

Marie and Pierre Curie
isolated 1/30 ounce of
radium from one ton of
uranium ore.

Marie died from
radiation-induced
leukemia.

The pages of her lab
notebook were later
found to be
contaminated with
radioactive
fingerprints.

Uranium Dating

Transmuting Elements

Transmuting Uranium to Neptunium

Neutron enters nucleus and is transformed into a proton
and an electron (which leaves the nucleus).

Albert Einstein and Mass-Energy Equivalence

Albert Einstein
(1879-1955)

Mass is energy: E = mc²
Energy is mass: m = E /c²

When a uranium nucleus
splits, the mass of the
remnants is less than the
original mass. The difference
appears as light, heat, and
kinetic energy.

Nuclear Fission

Average number of neutrons
released is 2.5.

Combined kinetic energy of
particles is about 200 MeV.

100,000,000 times more
energy than is released when
coal is burned:

C + O₂ => CO₂
(about 2 eV)

(Slow neutrons cause fission)

Slow neutrons are required.

A chain reaction occurs if
more than one neutron
goes on to cause another
fission.

Neutrons can be slowed by
bouncing them off of small
objects, such as carbon
nuclei.

One pound of U-235, if
completely fissioned, yields
the same energy as
100,000,000 pounds of coal.

Cadmium Control Rods Absorb Neutrons

Enrico Fermi
supervised
construction of the
world's first nuclear
reactor.

Cadmium is a good absorber of neutrons.

World's First Controlled Nuclear Chain Reaction

Handball court under the bleachers at the University of Chicago, 1942. Uranium-235 is at
the center of the stack of graphite blocks; the carbon acts as a moderator, slowing neutrons.

The Manhattan Project

Oak Ridge, Tennessee. 60,000 workers worked for three
years to separate 2 kilograms of uranium-235 from
uranium-238.

Critical Mass

The smaller the sphere, the greater the ratio of surface area to volume, and the
greater the percentage of neutrons which escape the sphere before causing
fission.

Critical mass--or, critical size--is that mass value at which an average of more
than one neutron per fission is used to cause another fission.

Fission Bomb Idealized

Two sub-critical masses
are smashed together to
create a super-critical
mass.

Trinity Test Site

5:30 am, July 16, 1945, Alamogordo, New Mexico.

Dr. Robert J. Oppenheimer

The First Atomic Bomb

"Little Boy", two feet in diameter, ten feet long, 9000
pounds, dropped on Hiroshima, Japan, was a uranium
bomb, equivalent to 20,000 tons of explosive.

Little Boy and Fat Man

Little boy is on the left.

The Reactor Vessel

The water in the reactor vessel has
three purposes.

The water, being composed of
relatively light molecules, acts as a
moderator. In Fermi's reactor,
carbon in the form of graphite was
the moderator.

Water also acts to remove heat
from fuel rods which otherwise
would melt.

The heated water, converted to
steam, is then converted into
electrical energy.

A Nuclear Reactor

Heat generated by fission
in uranium rods creates
steam which turns turbine
blades connected to a
coil of wire in magnetic
field.

Discoverer of Nucleus Was Wrong about Nuclear Power

Rutherford at 1911 Solvay Conference

Fusion

Fusion is the opposite of fission. Deuterium must be
moving extremely fast to fuse.

Fusion in Stars

10 million degrees at the core
causes fusion of hydrogen into
helium.

Deuterium-Tritium Fusion

Laser evaporates D-T, creating
a "plasma" of charged particles
which push away from one
another. The reaction force
compresses and heats core.

Thermonuclear Weapons

The hydrogen bomb uses an atomic bomb as the heat source to
to fuse hydrogen into helium. The so-called H-bomb is vastly
more destructive than fission bombs. The Hiroshima bomb had
had explosive power of about 20,000 tons of TNT; H-bombs
commonly have 50-500 times the power (1-10 megatons).

Several hydrogen warheads are mounted on some of our
missiles, and each warhead, upon re-entering the atmosphere,
is independently targeted at a different city.

Mass is Energy and Energy is Mass

The work done per nucleon
adds energy to each nucleon,
which appears as increased
mass.

Nucleons broken out of the
nucleus weigh more outside
than they do inside.

Fusion versus Fission

If the final products have less mass than the reactants, energy is released.

Fission versus Fusion

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